The Shoe-Horn Sonata Essay Example for Free

The Shoe-Horn Sonata Essay John Misto, the person behind the play The Shoe-Horn Sonata, uses his distinctively visual text as a memorial for the Australian Army nurses who died in the war, as they were refused one by the government. â€Å"I do not have the power to build a memorial. So I wrote a play instead. † This drama illustrates the way the women were treated in the Japanese prisoner of war camps, during World War II through the two main characters Bridie – an Australian army nurse and Sheila – an English woman. The different dramatic techniques used in this play aid in the manipulation of the audience’s emotions and sway the preconceptions of the group. Misto utilises projected images and the emotive dialogue to create a vivid image in the viewer’s mind that is both distinctively visual and evokes emotions from the audience. Misto is not the only author to have used this technique in his work, John Schumann’s I Was Only 19 is a song that also features distinctively visual elements throughout the song. This text explores the conditions of the Vietnam war and the effect it has afterwards on someone as young as nineteen and has a similar purpose to Misto’s, to expose the terrible conditions of war and the effect it had and is still having on them today. Schumann uses intense emotive language to influence the listener’s opinion on war and draw attention to the conditions prisoners of war face. The Shoe-Horn Sonata digs deep into the readers mind and challenges their thoughts on the way they perceive injustices been done to the memory of the nurses, and of the thousands of other women and children who suffered with them. Misto is able to do this by projecting images onto a screen in the background. â€Å"Projected onto the screen is a photograph of row upon row of captured British and Australian women bowing to the Japanese. These images contribute to the creation of a physical, distinctively visual element in the drama. The confronting images shown forces the audience to reconsider their understanding of the prisoner of war camps in Japan. The audience begins to visualise the conditions the women faced and this leaves an impact on the viewer. Through this, Misto is able to convey his message to his audience through the distin ctively visual images, not only projected on the screen, but shaped in the viewer mind. Although Misto only intended to expose the injustices that had been done to the women’s memory, he has revealed the effect the war had on them and the aftermath of the camps. Misto brings to light the influence the camps had on the women involved in the war. â€Å"She stole every sheet and towel in her room – once she found out the Japanese own this place. † In this quote it is obvious that the women have still not recovered from the traumatic experience in the camp and still feel livid towards the Japanese. The distinctively visual dialogue is enough for the viewer to visualise the event taking place. The fact that the prisoners of war still feel resentment towards the Japanese suggests to the audience that the things they went through must have been worse than the responder originally assumed. The distinctively visual scene allows Misto to manipulate his audiences thinking, this emphasises the injustices that have been done to the women’s memory as the audience begins to realise the damage done to the women, mentally. The Shoe-Horn Sonata continues to battle the audience’s preconceptions of the prisoner of war camps in Japan by using stage directions as a medium for further exposing the effect the war had on its prisoners in Japan. The final scene Bride and Sheila finally feel free after over fifty years. â€Å"Bridie and Sheila are confidently dancing and the theatre is filled with Srauss’ music. It is the music of joy and triumph and survival. † As the two are dancing, triumphant music begins to play emphasising in the viewers mind that after all the years of fear and uncertainty, they finally feel free and confident again. The distinctively visual dancing reinforces the idea that they are free and dancing is a way of expressing your freedom. Misto was even able to, in his stage directions; convey the drama’s purpose through distinctively visual elements. John Schumann’s I Was Only 19 is abundant with different examples of how the distinctively visual conveys the author’s purpose. Schumann uses strong emotive language to produce a distinctively visual image in the reader’s mind. â€Å"And the Anzac legends didn’t mention mud and blood and tears,† the egative connotations attached to the words â€Å"mud†, â€Å"blood†, and â€Å"tears† contrasts with the idea of the Anzac legends, which has a positive connotations. These ideas contrast forcing the reader to reassess their thoughts on the Anzac legends and how they affected the Anzacs during and after the war. The emotive words create a distinctively visual image in the readers mind as they vi sualise the mud-covered jungles of Vietnam and the pain (blood) and suffering (tears) the Anzacs went through. Schumann is able to form a distinctively visual image using only strong emotive language, and he uses this technique to convey the purpose of his song. I Was Only 19 includes many more examples of how Schumann uses distinctively visual language to convey his message. â€Å"And night time’s just a jungle dark and a barking M16? † The emotive word â€Å"dark† creates a distinctively visual image of a dark, dangerous jungle which also incorporates an almost life-like sound of an M16 firing in the background. This image is formed from the powerful emotion in the language and the imagery it creates. As the viewer pictures the dark jungle, they are confronted with the idea that an actual person had fallen into that unfortunate situation and this is what Schumann wants his readers to reflect on, the idea that someone had to experience those conditions for years. Schumann is hopefully able to evoke sympathy in the reader for the soldiers that were in Vietnam. The distinctively visual imagery aids in the creation of this process. John Misto and John Schumann both have a message they want to get out to the world. They may be similar but they both are just as important as the other. These composers are trained in using language and dramatic techniques to manipulate the audience’s emotions and persuading them to think what they wanted them to think, which in this case, is to spread the story of the women nurses in prisoner of war camps and how this affected them and the Vietnam veterans, including their mental and physical diseases. They have successfully done this, using distinctively visual elements in their texts.

A Study On Cambodia Tourism Essay

A Study On Cambodia Tourism Essay Cambodia is not an isolated case: tourism is a key sector in many of the least developed countries (LDCs), a grouping officially recognized by the United Nations in 1971. Still, their overall share in international tourism is small, accounting for less than 1% of global tourism receipts. Over the last few years, information and communication technologies (ICT) have had a growing impact on tourism promotion, marketing and sales. With the advent of new forms of ICT, a novel type of tourism, e-tourism, has emerged that is radically transforming the international tourism industry. More and more people now prefer to search for information on tourism destinations and offers on the Internet. But in most cases it is not developing countries that benefit from new tourism opportunities. World tourism is mostly concentrated in a handful of rich countries, which both run the business and reap the benefits. Most information on tourism opportunities in developing countries is generated, updated and marketed online by major international service providers based in developed countries. With their obvious technological advantage, these providers carry out most of the sales transactions and absorb a large share of the profits. In African LDCs, up to 85% of total profits from the tourism industry are repatriated to developed countries. The situation is not much better in the Caribbean (80%) or Asia (70% in Thailand and 40% in India). What can be done to reverse this trend? One solution is for developing countries to take Fadvantage of the new opportunities offered by ICT to brand and promote their own tourism industry. Unlimited and low-cost access to world markets and information and trade networks is essential. To achieve this would require wider involvement of local small and medium-sized tourism enterprises in global ICT networks as well as innovative national ICT policies for the sector. But the challenge is worth it: e-tourism could help developing countries exploit the untapped development opportunities tourism offers and, if set up efficiently, could give them better control of their own tourism industry.

Hamlet Criticism :: Literary Analysis, Shakespeare, Classics

In “Hamlet';; Literary Remains, Samuel Taylor Coleridge describes Hamlet as an intricate planner who’s thought process is slow and methodical. He describes Hamlet as someone having “Supercilious activities…of the mind, which, unseated from its healthy relation, is constantly occupied with the world within, and abstracted from the world without…throwing a mist over all common-place actualities.'; Cooleridge is explaining the fact that Hamlet seems to always be in his own fantasy world when it comes to thinking about things that are going on in his life. Hamlet appears to be very caught up in his own thoughts that he doesn’t have the time or ability to carry out his plans efficiently and effectively. Cooleridge contrasts Shakespeare’s use of a tragedy in Hamlet to the play MacBeth. Cooleridge shows that Hamlet proceeds in his schemes with the utmost slowness, while MacBeth has a pace that is crowded and moves with breathless rapididty. These tw o plays with themes of Greed and Revenge are both rooted in the same systems of belief but are carried out in totally different directions. Cooleridge goes on to say that perfection is usually only found in one’s mind and is rare if impossible to find in reality. This is again shown through the fact that Hamlet’s planning seems to take a backseat to luck and fate as the others end up dying from the poison, which they had planned to use against Hamlet. Cooleridge also stresses the inconsistency of Hamlet and his plans for revenge throughout the play. One minute the audience believes that he cares greatly for Ophelia, and the next minute we see him showing a sort of disrespect for her at her funeral.

How Michael Henchards Character In the Mayor of Casterbridge Led to hi

Why Michael Henchard’s Character Led to His Misery and Demise The Mayor of Casterbridge by Thomas Hardy is a novel about the rising and plummeting of a complex man named Michael Henchard. Michael Henchard does not just have one characteristic or just one personality for that matter. His personality can be described as thoughtful and strong-minded but also as ruthless, stubborn and cold. Henchard's impulsiveness, aggressive attitude, childishness and selfish nature made failure and misery inevitable in his life. The essence of his character is the root of his demise and misery. Michael Henchard’s pride and stubbornness leads to the start of his demise. When we first meet Henchard he is a dejected hay-trusser of twenty-one years, who is married to his wife Susan, with a young daughter, Elizabeth Jane. We see Henchard sell his wife and daughter in a drunken rage in a furmity tent at a county fair. It starts out first as a joke, but then is turned foul. "Why shouldn't they put 'em up and sell 'em by auction to men who are in need of such articles? Hey? Why, begad, I'd sell mine this minute if anybody would buy her!" Henchard said. The main reasons for Henchard continuing on with his joke to sell his wife and daughter to a sailor were his pride as well as the effect of the alcohol. Drinking alcohol leads to a couple decisions that Henchard comes to regret. In fact he often regrets things after he does them, and suffers the consequences. An example of this would be the fact that he sold his wife and daughter to a complete stranger for only five guineas. That sin stays nestled on his conscience and haunts him not only right after, but throughout his life. Henchard was young and naive and felt that his wife and daughter wer... ...titude. â€Å"Henchard’s Will: ‘That Elizabeth Jane Farfrae be not told of my death, or made to grieve on a account of me. And that I be not buried in consecrated ground. And that no sexton be asked to toll the bell. SL And that nobody’s wish to see my dead body.’† Michael Henchard’s constant exercise of jealousy, pride, immature actions and overwhelming emotions bring him to his tragic end. Although Henchard might have you think he is a victim, the reader can see that his personality leads to the conclusion of his downfall and that Henchard’s inability to learn from his first mistakes takes him down a path no one wants to face. He might have been able to survive his mistakes had he not been so self-destructive. But because of the combination of his personality traits and the complexity of his character’s mind, he is eventually led to the nothingness that engulfs him.

Wood Imagery and the Cross in Faulkners Light in August Essay

Wood Imagery and the Cross in Light in August  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   It is nearly impossible to interpret Light in August without noting the Christian parallels.1 Beekman Cottrell explains: As if for proof that such a [Christian] symbolic interpretation is valid, Faulkner gives us, on the outer or upper level of symbolism, certain facts which many readers have noted and which are, indeed, inescapable. There is the name of Joe Christmas, with its initials of JC. There is the fact of his uncertain paternity and his appearance at the orphanage on Christmas day. Joe is approximately thirty-three years of age at his lynching, and this event is prepared for throughout the novel by Faulkner's constant use of the word crucifixion. These are firm guideposts, and there are perhaps others as convincing. (207) In fact, there are many more convincing Christian symbolisms, which, in sum, have led to Virginia Hlavsa's suggestion that in Light in August "Faulkner arranged his events and directed his themes to parallel the 21 chapters of the St. John Gospel" ("St. John and Frazer" 11).2    These symbolisms, however, stray from the text of Light in August and seek to unify the novel through biblical or mythic allusions alone. They attempt to answer the questions of how Light in August functions as a work of literature by avoiding the novel itself. Because of this, they each fall short of being a definitive interpretation of the novel. In Francois Pitavy's view, these critics do not base their interpretations on "methodical analysis." They do not "study each chapter or group of chapters to see how and why the spatial and temporal breaks occur" (2). Faulkner's use of Christian myths in Light in August has produced jagged paths for critic... ...uri State University, 1995. Gwynn, Frederick L., and Joseph Blotner, eds. Faulkner in the University. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 1959. Hlavsa, VirginiaV. "The Crucifixion in Light in August: Suspending the Rules at the Post." Faulkner and Religion: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha 1987. Ed. Doreen Fowler and Ann J. Abadie. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1989: 127-139. -------. "St. John and Frazer in Light in August: Biblical Form and Mythic Function."Bulletin of Research in the Humanities 83 (1980): 9-26. -------. "The Mirror, the Lamp, and the Bed: Faulkner and the Modernists." American Literature 57 (1985): 23-43. Meriwether, James B., and Michael Millgate, eds. Lion in the Garden: Interviews with William Faulkner 1926-1962. New York: Random House, 1968. Pitavy, Francois. Faulkner's "Light in August." Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1973    Wood Imagery and the Cross in Faulkner's Light in August Essay Wood Imagery and the Cross in Light in August  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚   It is nearly impossible to interpret Light in August without noting the Christian parallels.1 Beekman Cottrell explains: As if for proof that such a [Christian] symbolic interpretation is valid, Faulkner gives us, on the outer or upper level of symbolism, certain facts which many readers have noted and which are, indeed, inescapable. There is the name of Joe Christmas, with its initials of JC. There is the fact of his uncertain paternity and his appearance at the orphanage on Christmas day. Joe is approximately thirty-three years of age at his lynching, and this event is prepared for throughout the novel by Faulkner's constant use of the word crucifixion. These are firm guideposts, and there are perhaps others as convincing. (207) In fact, there are many more convincing Christian symbolisms, which, in sum, have led to Virginia Hlavsa's suggestion that in Light in August "Faulkner arranged his events and directed his themes to parallel the 21 chapters of the St. John Gospel" ("St. John and Frazer" 11).2    These symbolisms, however, stray from the text of Light in August and seek to unify the novel through biblical or mythic allusions alone. They attempt to answer the questions of how Light in August functions as a work of literature by avoiding the novel itself. Because of this, they each fall short of being a definitive interpretation of the novel. In Francois Pitavy's view, these critics do not base their interpretations on "methodical analysis." They do not "study each chapter or group of chapters to see how and why the spatial and temporal breaks occur" (2). Faulkner's use of Christian myths in Light in August has produced jagged paths for critic... ...uri State University, 1995. Gwynn, Frederick L., and Joseph Blotner, eds. Faulkner in the University. Charlottesville: University of Virginia, 1959. Hlavsa, VirginiaV. "The Crucifixion in Light in August: Suspending the Rules at the Post." Faulkner and Religion: Faulkner and Yoknapatawpha 1987. Ed. Doreen Fowler and Ann J. Abadie. Jackson: UP of Mississippi, 1989: 127-139. -------. "St. John and Frazer in Light in August: Biblical Form and Mythic Function."Bulletin of Research in the Humanities 83 (1980): 9-26. -------. "The Mirror, the Lamp, and the Bed: Faulkner and the Modernists." American Literature 57 (1985): 23-43. Meriwether, James B., and Michael Millgate, eds. Lion in the Garden: Interviews with William Faulkner 1926-1962. New York: Random House, 1968. Pitavy, Francois. Faulkner's "Light in August." Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1973   

Hutu Tribe

Hutu The mention of the word â€Å"Hutu† immediately conjures up images of mass murder from the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. The recent film Hotel Rwanda brought the horrible atrocities of that genocide to the public eye. However, it is not only in Rwanda that the Hutu have been involved in ethnic war. The country of Burundi, a neighbor to Rwanda, was the site of the first violence between the Hutu and the Tutsi. The Hutu people of Burundi have a rich culture and history that has been largely overshadowed by ethnic conflict. The Hutu are a Bantu tribe numbering about thirteen million (Newbury 2001).Traditionally the Hutu organized themselves in clans and family groups through patrilineal decent (Ndarishikanye 1998). Within these groups they practiced polygyny and bridewealth as part of the institution of marriage (McDonald et. al 1969). Like many African tribes the Hutu’s religious beliefs include the spirit world. The supreme God Imana is seen as the giver of all good whil e there are lesser spirits who do evil (book). The Hutu inhabit the high plateau of the central African Rift Valley and inhabited 85% of Rwanda and Burundi before the ethnic wars in those countries (CIA World Factbook).The Hutu inhabit diverse geographies. In the southeast region of the Rwanda and Burundi territory there are open grasslands which are ideal for pastoral people. In the western region of the countries there are mountains. The west is good land for agriculture because it reliably receives rainfall. In the northeast there are lowlands that are along Lake Tanganyika (Newbury, 2001). This vast array of ecologies provides different possibilities for food production or procurement.The Hutu are traditionally agriculturalist but they did get involved in herding cattle because of the closely related Tutsi tribe. The Hutu wanted cattle and the Tutsi wanted laborers. To appease both groups, agreements called ubuhake were made. These agreements exchanged the Tutsi cattle for the H utu labor. In other words when a Hutu entered this agreement he received cattle but in return became submissive to a Tutsi owner (Louis 1963). This is one reason that the minority Tutsi rose to control economics and rule over the majority Hutu, this would later lead to ethnic conflict.The ethnic conflict between the Tutsi and the Hutu is most famous in Rwanda but the Hutu of Burundi have also been severely affected by ethnic tension throughout the years. Understanding the causes and effects of the violence is a part of understanding the history of the Hutu people. The causes of the ethnic tensions between the Hutu and Tutsi are not simply explained. In fact, in 1931 Bernard Zuure, a missionary with seventeen years of work in Burundi, noted that it was pointless to distinguish between the Hutu and Tutsi because their cultures were so similar (Zuure 1931).What then caused the separation between the two ethnicities? According to Alphonse Rugambarara the separation of identities came wh en there was a specific political agenda to create separate Tutsi and Hutu ideologies. These terms created animosity and dichotomist identities where there was actually little difference (Rugambarara 1990). The identities of Hutu and Tutsi were so significant that other ethnicities or social segregations became less important. The role of the Hutu as submissive to the Tutsi was engrained in society.An example of this is that in the Kirundi language (spoken by the Hutu) there is not a word equivalent to the English equality or liberty so Hutu’s could not even verbalize a desire for freedom (Lermarchand 1995). Given the strong identity associated with ethnicity in Burundi the complications behind the explanation of the 1972 genocide are understandable. To get to the root of the problem or causes of the genocide is difficult because the perceptions of the Hutu and Tutsi about the conflict are very different (Lermachand 1995). Liisa Malkki studied Hutu refugees in Tanzania who ha d fled from the genocide.She discovered that in the refugee camps â€Å"mythico-histories† were created. These were stories or parables that the Hutu told which constructed their history and moral truths (Milkka, 1989). These stories were not necessarily untrue or true but they served to construct the identity of the Hutu and the cause of the genocide. The Hutu were not the only tribe developing â€Å"mythico-histories. † The truth is very hard to discern among many â€Å"histories† (Lermarchand 1995). Beyond the â€Å"why’s† of the conflict we can conclude the â€Å"what’s. † What actually took place in Burundi in 1972?In the spring of 1972 on April 29th the Hutu attempted a rebellion against the ruling Tutsi. In response the Tutsi retaliated with warfare. Within several weeks roughly 100,000 people were killed in the ethnic conflict. Of the total population of Burundi 3. 5 percent were wiped out (Mikksa 1989). This was not the last of ethnic violence in Burundi. In 1993 the country saw more violence when its first Hutu president, Melchior Ndadaye, was assassinated (Lemarchand 2001). The Hutu reacted to the Tutsi murder of their president by killing an estimated 20,000 Tutsi in the two months following the assassination (Lemarchand 2001).Blame for the violence between the two ethnicities cannot be placed on one group or the other, they are both responsible. The history between the Tutsi and the Hutu is full of attack and reaction sequences. Both the Tutsi and the Hutu wanted to have, â€Å"the last word. † With a long history of violence between Tutsi and Hutu in Burundi there have been severe repercussions. The largest affect of the genocide has been the diaspora of Burundi. The conflict in Burundi created both Tutsi and Hutu refugees in search of safety.The UN Refugee Agency (UN Refugee Agency 2007) estimated in June 2007 that a total of 464,026 Burundians had been displaced from their homes. Of that g roup 48,144 had returned to Burundi and 396,541 were still in refugee status (UN Refugee Agency 2007) Of the refugees still in refugee status, not including internally displaced persons (IDP) the UNHCR is assisting 164,191 (UN Refugee Agency 2007). What exactly do all these terms and numbers mean? Put simply they mean that there are hundreds of thousands of people who were forced or chased away from their homes and livelihoods.The UNHCR defines a refugee as â€Å"a person who is outside his/her country of nationality or habitual residence; has a well-founded fear of persecution because of his/her race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social group or political opinion; and is unable or unwilling to avail himself/herself of the protection of that country, or to return there, for fear of persecution† (UN Refugee Agency 2007) Under such conditions it is expected that any people group will undergo significant changes. Liisa Milkka has written a book about the ref ugee status of the Hutu’s in Tanzania.She spent one year in Tanzania studying two groups of refugees. Many refugees fled to Tanzania after the genocide of 1972 in Burundi. The first group lived in an isolated refugee camp and the other settled near the town of Kigoma. The town refugees tended to be dispersed amongst non-refugees while the camp refugees were concentrated all in one place (Milkka 1989). Because of these arrangements the town refugees assimilated into the town culture. They took on many identities and did not solely live as â€Å"Hutu† or as â€Å"refugees† (Milkka 1992). Naturally it was more ifficult for the camp people to do the same because they had isolated themselves from the Tanzanians. The camp culture glorified the Hutu identity as the original inhabitants of Burundi who would one day return there to reestablish their kingdom (Milkka 1989). The status of refugee for these camp people was a great thing. It made them become â€Å"a purer an d more powerful Hutu† (Milkka, 1992). These differences between refugee definitions of â€Å"Hutu† complicate the Hutu ethnicity further. Instead of creating more confusion and uncertainty for the Hutu there should be a movement toward unity.This is exactly the approach that the Burundi government has taken to appease the violence between the Hutu and the Tutsi. Instead of stressing differences the government wants to stress unity. By focusing on national unity, democracy, and individual rights the Burundi government has tried to dissolve ethnic tensions (Ndarishikany, 1998). Some discussion has been made about the benefit that could come from reinstating the Burundian abashingatahe (Herisse 2002), which in traditional Burundian society was a judge, moral interpreter and well respected man (Newbury, 2001).The abashingatahe served to reconcile families with communities, certify marriages, settle litigations, maintain peace, and in general speak in favor of human rights ( Herisse 2002). It is argued that bringing this social force back into practice will begin to reconstruct social unity in Burundi. This may be just what the Hutu people need to come together and rebuild. The troubles of the genocides between the Tutsi and Hutu have strained both cultures. Many refugees created by the genocides in Rwanda and Burundi have integrated themselves into foreign cultures.Just an hour to the north of us there are Burundi refugees in the city of Buffalo. These refugees come to the US speaking little if any English. They eventually get jobs and become functioning civilians. As Burundians assimilate into American culture they will eventually lose some of their â€Å"distinct† cultural features. Understanding some of the history of Burundian Hutu’s and the reasons behind the ethnic conflict with the Tutsi can increase the effectiveness with which we help refugees integrate into American society. Works Citied CIA World Factbook. (Nov. 1 2007). Burund i.Retrieved Nov. 13, 2007. https://www. cia. gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/by. html#People Lemarchand, Rene. (1998). Genocide in the Greak Lakes: Which Genocide? Whose genocide? African Studies Review, 41, 3-16. Retrieved November 7, 2001, from JSTOR. Malkki, Liisa. (1992). National Geographic: The Rooting of Peoples and Territorialization of National Identity among Scholars and Refugees. Cultural Anthropology, 7, 24-44. from JSTOR. Malkka, Liisa. (1989). Purity and Exile  : Transformations in Historical-National Consciousness among Hutu Refugees in Tanzania.Ann Arbor: University Microfilsm. Malkki, Liisa H. (1996). Speechless Emissaries: Refugees, Humanitarianism, and Dehistoricization. Cultural Anthropology, 11, 377-404. Retrieved November 11, 2007, from JSTOR. McDonald, Gordon C. Brenneman, Lyle E. , Hibbs, Roy V. , James Charlene, A. , Vincenti, Violeta. (1969). Area handbook for Burundi. Ndarishikanye, Barnabe. (1998). The Question of the Protection of Mino rities in Burundi. Issue: A Journal of Opinion, 26, 5-9, Retrieved November 8, 2007, from JSTOR. Newbury, David. 2001) Precolonial Burundi and Rwanda: Local Loyalties, Regional Royalties. The International Journal of African Historical Studies. 34,. 255-314. Retrieved November 8, 2007, from JSTOR. Rockfeler, Herisse, P. (2002). Democracy, Governance and Conflict in Burundi. Peace Studies Journal. 1-10. Rugambarara, Alphonse. (1990). Conscience ethnique. Le Reveil, July-August, 35-40. The UN Refugee Agency. (daily updated). 2006 Refugee Statistics. Retrieved Nov. 11, 2007. http://www. unhcr. org/statistics/STATISTICS/4676a71d4. pdf. Zuure, Bernard. (1931). L’ame du Murundi. Paris: Beauchesne.

At a Watershed: Advanced nursing practice in Australia

There is no more gratifying labor in health care than nursing. The nurses have always been on the front line in a struggle for sound mankind. Oxford Concise Medical Dictionary identifies nurse as â€Å"a person trained and experienced in nursing matters and entrusted with the care of the sick and the carrying out of medical and surgical routines† (â€Å"Nurse†). This is true, but gives misdescription of this medical profession whose scope is much wider and complex.Nursing is the largest health profession in Australia. Since the middle of the 80s last century the total number of employed nurses has been relatively stable, although the occupational composition has changed: registered nurses showed growth in comparison with enrolled ones. The recent reports by Australian Institute of Health and Welfare demonstrated such a tendency (qtd. in Hilless & Healy 64).Despite of this fact we witness Australia–wide shortage of nurses, with no signs of improvement for many yea rs running (Iliffe 4). One can say that nursing practice in Australia is at a watershed of its development. The outcome would depend on what public affairs will be undertaken to overcome the present situation.The issue involves the necessity to implement advanced nursing practices, to lift up prestige of the profession, to review the system of remuneration of labor, to improve education standards as well. To find the ways to success in advanced practice of nursing in Australia we should examine its current position, indicators of quality, political and industrial contexts, and educational requirements, analyze them and make the conclusions.Making the considerable part of medical professional workers, nursing in Australia seems to form an image of health care system to a considerable degree.The community holds the Australian nurses in a high regard which reflects in â€Å"very positive public image† of this profession (Iliffe 5). But the very serious issue of shortages â€Å" in many areas of nursing, principally operating theatre, critical and intensive care, accident and emergency, cardiothoracic, neonatal care, midwifery and mental health† (qtd. in Hilless & Healy 64) contributed to some loss of health care services provide by advanced nurses due to associated excess workload combined with an ageing nursing workforce (Levett 3).For instance, â€Å"in 1998, there were 9.5 nurses per 1000 population in Australia, which is around the middle range for western European countries [†¦], but slightly more than in Canada and the USA† (Hilless and Healy 64).Australian Institute of Health and Welfare in 1999 reported that the public hospitals were the largest contributors to nurses' occupancy in the Commonwealth at a rate of 47% while 82% from a total number of nurses were registered ones (qtd. in Hilless & Healy 64). That means that Australia in fact has positive result in increasing number of highly qualified professionals in nursing.The Fede ral Government recently pays much attention to this sector of health care. It defined nursing as a national priority area; provided scholarships for undergraduate and postgraduate nursing education; funded the clinical component of nursing courses (Iliffe 4). But government's efforts are not sufficient to cardinally improve the situation.The latest report of the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare has shown, that the amount of nurses workload â€Å"increased 8.9% between 1995-96 and 1999-00† (qtd. in Iliffe 4). The same report indicates that more than 50% of nurses work part–time to handle their schedule. As a result we see reducing rate of qualified nurses per 100,000 population from 1074 in 1993 to 1018 in 1999 (Iliffe 4).In the hospitals the rate of the patients per nurse reduced â€Å"from 44.6 patient discharges per FTE nurse in 1995–1996, to 49.3 in 1998–1999† (qtd. in Hilless and Healy 64).The Federal Government also set a goal to ext end the supply of nurse practitioners in rural and remote regions. Now the situation is so that primary care professional workers' number in urban and rural centers noticeably differs from those in remote territories. The government tries to encourage relocation of nurses to such territories.Health services for rural inhabitants have become the main concern for it. â€Å"More funding was announced for medical schools in rural Australia, to pay allied health professionals to work with rural general practitioners, for the establishment of specialist outreach services for rural areas, more scholarships for rural students in Australian medical schools, and programs to attract pharmacists to rural areas† (Hilless & Healy 64).The certain reducing of quality of medical services provided by the nurses due to their shortage raised the issue of indicators for advanced practice. Gavin Mooney affirms that â€Å"one of the central issues in health care is that of deciding how to value he alth† (22). Of course the high level of health is a major indicator for successful health care system.Among the key criteria of assessment of health care system its satisfactoriness for public is of great importance. Recent public opinion surveys have shown that there is disappointment among the consumers with some aspects of this system, to wit consumer costs and hospital waiting lists.â€Å"Only 18% of Australians thought the system worked well and needed only minor changes, compared with 34% feeling that way ten years ago† (Hilless and Healy 86).To achieve good quality of health care services in Australia the regulatory agencies implement high requirements to competency of nurses.They are required to maintain legal, ethical, and professional standards of nursing practice which includes, but is not limited to, confidentiality, professional boundaries, and mandatory reporting; to demonstrate accountability for maintaining current knowledge in the nurse's field of pract ice.To participate in self-evaluation and in activities to enhance life-long learning; to serve as a role model, especially in preventive care, forming public opinion and being leaders in all matters that influence health (Dobrossy 2).The licensed practical nurses have to be well–educated to meet the basic needs of the client, to give nursing care under the direction and supervision of the registered nurse or licensed physician to clients in routine nursing situations.Registered nurse should assist in implementing the nursing process while recognizing religious and cultural diversity; support patient's autonomy (Mason and Smith 12); use communication skills effectively; assist in health teaching of the client, recognizing individual differences; utilize the nursing process, as a framework for critical thinking, in providing safe, goal-directed individualized care; direct health teaching to clients.In the issue of advanced nursing practice the qualitative aspects of the nursin g care delivery process are also of great importance. â€Å"Gaining understanding and skill at balancing professional relationships while also knowing the risks of caring are critical components of providing excellent supportive care to patients and their families† (Bakke and King 182).As a manager of care, nurse should demonstrate responsibility for own actions by using common techniques of problem solving and decision making to plan and organize own assignment; recognize the need for change in a structural health care setting and demonstrate willingness to participate in effecting change (Grumbach 1518).The observance of the above mentioned requirements forms the advanced nursing practice and is under control of statutory boards throughout the Commonwealth which also are in charge of registering medical professionals (Hilless and Healy 65).The assessment of health sector performance is conducted by the Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, the National Health Performa nce Committee and the Australian Council on Health Care Standards. Also many state programs are devoted to elaboration and implementation of performance and outcomes. But till now the measurement of health care performance continue to be greatly complicated (qtd. in Hilless and Healy 29).